Development and initial validation of the Betrayal Blindness Questionnaires (BBQs)

Abstract

Emerging adults of Color are at increased risk for interpersonal trauma, including physical, sexual, and emotional abuse (Porter & Williams, 2011). Understanding victims’ awareness of the existence and impact of their own trauma history is important for research and clinical work. However, because of trauma awareness processes (e.g., underreporting), it is challenging to accurately measure awareness of trauma. Based on betrayal trauma theory (Freyd, 1996), the concept of rotating betrayal blindness theorizes that awareness of past trauma may shift across contexts and time (Noll & Gómez, 2013). The purpose of the current study is to provide an initial validation of the Betrayal Blindness Questionnaires (BBQs) among a sample of emerging adults of Color with trauma histories using exploratory factor analysis (EFA). With its three questionnaires assessing past memory (PM-BBQ), current memory (CM-BBQ), and rotating betrayal blindness (R-BBQ), the BBQs measure the past and present impact of traumatic events, as well as how this impact may vary according to the theory of rotating betrayal blindness. Participants (N = 155) were college students of Color who completed the one-hour online survey at a location of their own choosing. Based on the EFA, the R-BBQ retained 19 items across 4 factors, the PM-BBQ retained 22 items across 4 factors, and the CM-BBQ retained18 items across 4 factors. The questionnaires demonstrated adequate to excellent reliability (α = .66-.95). The BBQs can be used in basic and applied research to better examine nonlinear changes to autobiographical memory for trauma.